Why We Sleep

WHY WE SLEEP The Functions of Sleep in Humans and Other Mammals J. A. Horne Published by Oxford University Press 1988 Contents CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1. 1Early Sleep Theories 1. 2Daily Sleep and Wakefulness 1. 3Measuring Sleep References CHAPTER 2 Sleep Deprivation 2. 1Problems with Animal Experiments 2. 2Recent Animal Experiments 2. 3Some Problems with Human Experiments 2. 41896 †The First Real Sleep Deprivation Experiment on Humans 2. 5The Longest Study †264 hours Without Sleep 2. 6Abnormal Behavior 2. 7The Longest Study With More than One Subject †205 hours 2. The Walter Reed Experiments 2. 9Motivation and Cerebral Impairment 2. 10Tasks Sensitive to Sleep Deprivation 2. 11Higher Levels of Cerebral Function 2. 12Spare Cerebral Capacity 2. 13Performance Measures Are Too Limited 2. 14Two Types of Sleepiness ? 2. 15Short-Term Sleep Restriction 2. 16Age and Sleep Deprivation 2. 17Does Repeated Deprivation Produce Immunity to Sleep Loss ? 2. 18Can Sleep Deprivation Effect s be Sped Up or Slowed Down ? 2. 19Do Long and Short Sleepers Differ in Their Recovery Sleep ? 2. 20Epilepsy 2. 21Other Effects On the Human EEGReferences CHAPTER 3 Physiological Effects of Sleep Deprivation 3. 1The First Major Physiological Study †Kleitman, 1923 3. 2The Next Fifty Years 3. 3Body Restitution and Sleep 3. 4Effects on Exercise 3. 5The Control of Body Temperature (Thermoregulation) 3. 6Other Aspects of Homeostasis 3. 7Update on Hormone Changes 3. 8The Immune System 3. 9Conclusions about Sleep Deprivation in Humans References CHAPTER 4 Body Restitution and Sleep 4. 1Tissue Restitution : Protein Turnover and Cell Division 4. 2Factors Influencing Protein Turnover and the Cell Cycle 4. Taking care of and Protein Turnover 4. 4Mitosis, Sleep and Physical Activity 4. 5Metabolism During Sleep and the Energy Cost of Restitution 4. 6Cell Energy Charge and Sleep 4. 7Human Growth Hormone Release During Sleep 4. 8Other Hormonal Changes During Human Sleep 4. 9Thyroid Activity a nd Sleep †Body Versus Brain Restitution 4. 10The Effects of Exercise on Sleep †Background 4. 11Is Body Heating the Key ? 4. 12Conclusions References CHAPTER 5 Waking Awareness, Subsequent Sleep, and Cerebral â€Å"Restitution† 5. 1Background 5. 2Influences of Wakefulness on Subsequent Sleep 5. SWS Changes throughout the Night, and â€Å"Models† of SWS 5. 4Brain Work During Wakefulness 5. 5Increased Awareness during Wakefulness and Subsequent Sleep 5. 6Reduced Sensory Stimulation during Wakefulness 5. 7SWS Reductions in Psychiatric Disorders 5. 8SWS and Aging 5. 9SWS Deprivation 5. 10Brain and Behavior During SWS 5. 11Cerebral Restitution During SWS ? 5. 12Sleep â€Å"Substances† and Immunoen hancement 5. 13Conclusions References CHAPTER 6 Core and Optional Sleep 6. 1Introduction 6. 2Natural Long and Short Sleepers among Humans 6. 3Can the Normal Sleeper Adapt to Less Sleep ? . 4Sleep Extension 6. 5Are We Chronically Sleep Deprived ? 6. 6The Circadian T iming of Sleep 6. 7Abnormalities in the Timing of Sleep 6. 8Insomnia 6. 9Stage 2 Sleep 6. 10Conclusions References CHAPTER 7 Sleep in Other Mammals 7. 1Dolphins 7. 2Laboratory versus Characteristic Habitats 7. 3Statistical Analyses of Mammalian Sleep 7. 4Sleep †the Immobilizer and Energy Conserver for Small Mammals 7. 5More Energy sparing if Sleep forms into a Torpor 7. 6Night versus Day Sleeping Mammals 7. 7Food, Feeding Behavior and Cerebral Development 7. 8Encephalisation 7. 9Conclusions so Far 7. 0Infancy References CHAPTER 8 REM Sleep 8. 1Perspectives on Dreaming 8. 2Memory, Homeostatic, Sentinel, and Motivational Theories 8. 3Abundance of REM Sleep in Early Life †The Ontogenetic Hypothesis 8. 4Sleep After Increased Learning 8. 5REM Sleep Deprivation in Animals †Background 8. 6REM Sleep Deprivation, Learning and Drive Behavior 8. 7REM Sleep Deprivation in Humans 8. 8Brain Protein Synthesis and Related Findings 8. 9Conclusions so Far 8. 10Similarities between REM Sleep and Wakefulness 8. 11Keeping Cool 8. 12Keeping Warm 8. 13Increased Heat Production without Shivering . 14Thermoregulation in REM Sleep Reverts to the Fetal Level 8. 15Conclusions About REM Sleep References Epilog Why Do We Sleep ? Section 1 INTRODUCTION This is a book about the reason for rest in vertebrates, especially in people. My methodology has been to take an expansive organic point of view, taking a gander at rest comparable to the normal ways of life and conduct of warm blooded animals, and making what I trust is a progression of educated assessments about what rest intends to them, and particularly to us. Obviously, I don't have the response to why we rest, as a lot of is still unknown.What I have endeavored to do is clean up numerous misguided judgments and attempt and comprehend what is left. This book isn't intended to be an exhaustive content on rest, yet a particular and individual record giving a few speculations about an assortment of viewpoints on rest. Huge n umbers of my decisions may well end up being incorrectly, as that is the method of most hypotheses. In any case, I trust that before they bomb they end up being useful in invigorating different thoughts. I have attempted to make the book discernible, and present my case inside a spreading out tale about sleep.Technicalities have been kept to a base, in spite of the fact that on occasion, and of need, it really expounds. At every possible opportunity, I have attempted to make it reasonable, as the book is pointed at rest specialists, yet at a readership having to a greater degree a passing enthusiasm for rest, with just an essential foundation in science and brain research. Little inclusion is given to the mind's neurophysiological and neurochemical components managing rest. While they help clarify how rest happens, the essential inquiries regarding what they are doing there in any case, that is the capacity of rest, despite everything must be answered.Besides, there are now amazing writings portraying these systems (e. g. ref. 1). Numerous individuals feel that, in spite of fifty years of examination, everything we can finish up about the capacity of rest is that it defeats drowsiness, and that the main dependable finding from lack of sleep tests is that rest misfortune makes us languid. Such a pitiful standpoint has been somewhat answerable for some rest analysts getting some distance from fundamental examination to the additionally animating field of rest issue. Moreover, is knowing why we rest such a fundamental inquiry all things considered ?Employment possibilities are far superior in the territory of rest issue, and there is the fulfillment of having the option to help or fix numerous patients. Various Sleep Disorders Centers have been set up in the United States and Europe in the course of the most recent decade (tsk-tsk, not in the UK), and this is by a long shot the best development region in rest research. While it could appropriately be contended th at rest issue is an unmistakably progressively beneficial territory for rest research, shockingly, similar to the neurophysiological systems of rest, it despite everything doesn't disclose to us much concerning why we sleep.Certainly, it has given important data about the neurophysiological components, and about the relationship among rest and breathing (which isn't generally identified with the capacity of rest either). This is the reason the book contains minimal about rest issue. Once more, there are as of now a few astounding records accessible (e. g. refs. 2-4). The point of this book is to show that we have not arrived at an impasse in our comprehension about the elements of rest, but instead, that we may have taken a lot for granted.As will be seen, this subject is as yet an obscure and energizing element, with numerous roads still to follow, and there is a lot of work to be finished. Compositions concerning why we rest go back to before the times of Aristotle. Most lounge ch air the motivation behind snooze terms of rest and recuperation from the â€Å"wear and tear† of alertness. One can't generally contend with this thought as it bodes well, what's more, we as a whole realize that we feel the â€Å"worse for wear† without rest, thus much better after rest. In any case it is an obscure thought †what precisely is recuperated ?This is as yet an issue for extensive discussion, as will be seen all through the book. It is usually felt that 7 †8 hours rest a night is essential. This thought is fortified from numerous quarters. For instance, by the well known press (â€Å"you must get your excellence sleep†), and by numerous GPs. Asking a patient â€Å"how are you dozing ? â€Å", may just be a stock expression for helping the GP to set up compatibility, yet it despite everything accentuates the requirement for a â€Å"good night's sleep†. The key indication of insuffient or upset rest is over the top languor in the day time.But numerous light sleepers don't encounter this, and a significant concern is about â€Å"not getting enough sleep†, and what may befall their wellbeing as a result. Be that as it may, we presumably don't generally require the most recent couple of hours of an average night's rest, and rest misfortune is far less unsafe than most would might suspect. The vast majority of the hypotheses about the capacity of rest focus on dreams or dreaming rest, these days called â€Å"rapid eye movement† rest (REM rest). Scarcely any glance at the rest of the rest. Numerous individuals accept that we just rest to dream or having REM sleep.Clearly, dreams are the most charming and noticable piece of rest, however the significance of this rest is likely overran ted. As will be seen, a huge segment of REM rest is superfluous, without sick impact. REM rest just possesses around one fourth of our daily rest, and to call the remainder of rest â€Å"non-REM† rest, by depicting i t as far as a nonappearance of REM rest, spoils most of rest, yet ignores what may losely be portrayed as the â€Å"deeper† part of non-REM rest, called â€Å"slow wave sleep† (SWS) in humans.This type of rest may well end up being the most pivotal for us. By the by, notwithstanding the way that nobody truly realizes what REM rest does, or whether it is â€Å"good† for us

The Unsolved Case of the Zodiac Killer

The Unsolved Case of the Zodiac Killer The Zodiac Killer was a sequential executioner who followed portions of Northern California from December 1968 through October 1969. Through a progression of secretive letters he sent to the press and others, he revealed his inspiration for the killings, offered pieces of information to future homicide plots, and received the epithet Zodiac. He accepting duty regarding killing upwards of 37 individuals, yet police examiners have just affirmed five passings and seven absolute attacks.â December 20, 1968â Betty Lou Jensen, 16, and David Arthur Faraday, 17, were stopped at a disconnected spot situated on Lake Herman Road on the eastern side Vallejo, California. Witnesses saw the youthful couple crouched together in the passenger seat of Faradays Rambler station wagon between around 10:15 and 11:00 p.m. Nothing about the couple appeared to be surprising to spectators. Be that as it may, by 11:15 the scene had taken a heartbreaking turn. The couple was found lying on the ground outside their projectile perplexed vehicle. Betty Lou was discovered a few feet from the vehicle, dead from five shot injuries in the back. David was found closeby. He had been taken shots at short proximity in the headâ but was all the while relaxing. He diedâ en course to the medical clinic. Hints Investigators had hardly any pieces of information, beside the way that there was a previous encounter in a similar zone. Bill Crow and his better half were stopped in a similar spot as Faraday and Jensen only 45 minutes sooner. Crow told police that somebody driving a white Chevy drove past them, halted, and upheld up. For obscure reasons, Crow hurried away the other way. The Chevy pivoted and followed the couple, yet couldn't keep up after Crow made a sharp right turn at a crossing point. Two trackers likewise detailed seeing a white Chevy stopped at a rock pivot on Lake Herman Road. They moved toward the vehicle yet didn't see the driver inside. July 4, 1969â Darlene Elizabeth Ferrin, 22, and Michael Renault Mageau, 19, were stopped at the Blue Rock Springs Golf Course in Benicia around 12 PM. The fairway was four miles from where Jensen and Faraday were gunned down. A vehicle pulled up behind the couples vehicle, blocking them from heading out. A man, who Mageau accepted was a cop, escaped his vehicle holding a brilliant electric lamp that darkened his face. As the outsider moved toward the drivers side of the vehicle he promptly started taking shots at the couple, discharging five nine-millimeter adjusts into the vehicle. Both Ferrin and Mageau were shot. The shooter went to leaveâ but returned in the wake of hearing yells originating from Michael. He terminated four additional occasions. One projectile hit Michael and two struck Darlene. The shooter at that point got into his vehicle and drove away. Inside minutes after the assault, three adolescents went over the couple and rushed to find support. At the point when specialists showed up both Ferrin and Mageau were as yet alive, however Ferrin kicked the bucket before arriving at the medical clinic. Signs Michael Mageau endure the assault and had the option to give a depiction of the shooter to specialists. He portrayed the aggressor as a short, pudgy white man, around 5 8 and around 195 pounds. The Call At 12:40 a.m. a mysterious male guest reached the Vallejo Police Department and revealed the twofold homicide. During the call, he additionally said he was answerable for the Jensen and Faraday murders. Police followed the call and discovered it was produced using a telephone corner found just squares from the police division and not exactly a mile from Darlene Ferrins home. The guest told police: I wish to report a twofold homicide. In the event that you will go one mile east on Columbus Parkway to an open park, you will discover the children in an earthy colored vehicle. They have been shot by a nine-millimeter Luger. I likewise murdered those children a year ago. Farewell The Zodiac Letters On Friday, August 1, 1969, the main realized Zodiac letters were gotten by three papers. The San Francisco Examiner, San Francisco Chronicle,â and Vallejo Times-Herald each got a practically indistinguishable letter composed by an individual who assumed praise for the assaults on the four adolescents. He additionally gave insights concerning the killings and remembered 33% of a strange figure for each letter. Oneself broadcasted executioner requested that the three letters be distributed on the first page of every paper by that Friday evening or he would go out of control and arbitrarily kill twelve individuals throughout the end of the week. The letters were marked with a crossed-circle image. The letters were distributed and endeavors to unwind the messages in the figures started by specialists and residents. August 4, 1969 Police agents expressed freely that they had questions with regards to the legitimacy of the letters trying to get the executioner to get in touch with them once more. The arrangement worked. On August fourth, another letter showed up at the San Francisco Examiner. The letter started with the words that have since frequented many associated with the case: Dear Editor This is the Zodiac talking... It was the first run through the executioner utilized the name Zodiac. In the letter, the Zodiac included data which demonstrated he was available during the killings and a message that his personality was covered up inside the figures. August 8, 1969 A secondary teacher and his better half split the 408-image figure. The last 18 letters couldn't be decoded. The message read: I LIKE KILLING PEOPLE BECAUSE IT IS SO MUCH FUN IT IS MORE FUN THAN KILLING WILD GAME IN THE FORREST BECAUSE MAN IS THE MOST DANGEROUE ANAMAL OF ALL TO KILL SOMETHING GIVES ME THE MOST THRILLING EXPERENCE IT IS EVEN BETTER THAN GETTING YOUR ROCKS OFF WITH A GIRL THE BEST PART OF IT IS THAE WHEN I DIE I WILL BE REBORN IN PARADICE AND THEI HAVE KILLED WILL BECOME MY SLAVES I WILL NOT GIVE YOU MY NAME BECAUSE YOU WILL TRY TO SLOI DOWN OR ATOP MY COLLECTIOG OF SLAVES FOR MY AFTERLIFE EBEORIETEMETHHPITI. The way that the code didn't contain the executioners character was a mistake to the police, nonetheless, some accept the letters can be reworked (and three additional letters included) to spell Robert Emmet the Hippie. September 27, 1969â Undergrads, Cecelia Ann Shepard, 22, and Bryan Calvin Hartnell, 20, were picnicking on a landmass at Lake Berryessa close to Napa, Ca. A man conveying a self-loader gun and wearing a hooded outfit moved toward the couple. He revealed to them that he was a gotten away from convict from a Montana jail where he slaughtered a watchman and took a vehicle and that he needed cash and their vehicle to head to Mexico. The couple was collaborating completely with his requests, offering him cash and the vehicle keys and the three talked forâ a while. He trained Shepard to hoard tie Bartnell with precut bits of a clothesline that he provided. He then tied up Shepard and told the couple, Im must wound youâ people, and took out a long twofold edged blade and cut Hartnell multiple times and Shepard multiple times. He left the couple for dead and strolled calmly back to Hartnells vehicle where he attracted a crossed-circle image dark enchantment marker on the vehicle and the dates of the assaults in Vallejo. Aâ fishermanâ discovered the couple and called the police. The two casualties were as yet alive, yet it assumed control longer than an hour for clinical assistance to show up. Shepard kicked the bucket two days after the fact subsequent to passing into a state of extreme lethargy. Hartnell endure and gave police a nitty gritty record of the occasions just as a depiction of the assailant. The Call At 7:40 p.m. an unknown guest reached the Napa County Police Department. He addressed official David Slaight in what was depicted as a low, monotone voice. He told Slaight: I need to report a homicide - no, a twofold homicide. They are two miles north of park central command. They were in a white Volkswagen Karmann Ghia... furthermore, finished the call with, Im the person who did it. As in the Vallejo case, the call was followed to a telephone corner only a couple of squares from the police office. October 11, 1969â San Francisco taxi driver Paul Stine, 29, got a traveler in Union Square and headed to the well off region of Cherry Street and Nob Hill. It was there that the traveler shot Stine in the sanctuary, slaughtering him, at that point evacuated his wallet, vehicle keys and deliberately removed an enormous segment of his shirt. Three youths saw the occasion from a second-floor window opposite the stopped taxi. They reached the police and portrayed theâ shooterâ as aâ white male, 25 to 30 years of age, stocky form and a group cut. A serious manhunt was quickly propelled, yet some way or another there was a slip-up made with regards to the executioners race and the police were scanning for a dark male. How this error was made was rarely detailed and nobody was ever caught for theâ crime. It was later established that police drove by an enormous white male fitting the first depiction just squares from the shooting, but since of hisâ race, the police didn't think of him as a suspect. October 14, 1969 The Chronicle got another letter from the Zodiac. A bit of Stinesâ blood-soakedâ shirt was encased and the creator alluded to the Stine murder, saying the police neglected to get him since they didn't look through the region appropriately. He at that point highlighted his next expected casualties, younger students. October 22, 1969 A guest distinguishing himself as the Zodiac reached the Oakland Police Department and requested on-broadcast appointment on the Jim Dunbar TV syndicated program with F. Lee Bailey or Melvin Belli, both renowned protection legal advisors. Belli showed up on the show and a call from somebody saying they were the Zodiac came in while the show was being broadcast. He said his genuine name was Sam and asked that Belli meet him in Daly City. Belli concurred yet the guest never appeared. It was later discovered that the call was a lie and the I

Book Riots Deals of the Day for February 6, 2020

Book Riot’s Deals of the Day for February 6, 2020 Sponsored by Dragon Hoops by Gene Luen Yang with First Second. These deals were active as of this writing, but may expire soon, so get them while they’re hot! Todays  Featured Deals Eloquent Rage: A Black Feminist Discovers Her Superpower by Brittney C. Cooper for $3.99. Get it here,  or just click on the cover image below. A Girl Like That by Tanaz Bhathena  $2.99. Get it here,  or just click on the cover image below. Hummus and Homicide by Tina Kashian for $1.99. Get it here,  or just click on the cover image below. Dinner for Everyone by  Mark Bittman for $2.99. Get it here,  or just click on the cover image below. In Case You Missed Yesterdays Most Popular Deals The Deep by Rivers Solomon, Daveed Diggs, William Hutson, and Jonathan Snipes for $1.99. Get it here,  or just click on the cover image below. The Diviners by Libba Bray for $2.99. Get it here,  or just click on the cover image below. Previous Daily Deals That Are Still Active As Of This Writing (Get em While Theyre Hot!): Conversations with Myself by Nelson Mandela for $3.99 One Good Earl Deserves a Lover by Sarah McLean for $3.99 I Love You So Mochi by Sarah Kuhn for $1.99 Bring Up the Bodies by Hilary Mantel for $3.99 The Mapmaker’s Wife by  Robert Whitaker for $1.99 Tangerine by  Christine Mangan for $2.99 Wicked Saints by  Emily A. Duncan for $2.99 We Have Always Lived in the Castle by Shirley Jackson for $1.99 No One Is Coming to Save Us by Stephanie Powell Watts for $2.99 Monsoon Mansion by Cinelle Barnes  for $0.99 The Sellout by Paul Beatty for $3.99 The Forgotten Man by Robert Crais for $1.99 I Am, I Am, I Am: Seventeen Brushes With Death by Maggie OFarrell for $4.99 North of Happy by Adi Alsaid for $1.99 Enlightenment Now by  Steven Pinker for $1.99 The Burning Chambers by Kate Mosse for $2.99 The Surgeon by  Tess Gerritsen for $2.99 The Third Angel by  Alice Hoffman for $2.99 Whiskey When We’re Dry by  John Larison for $1.99 Astonish Me by  Maggie Shipstead for $2.99 Conversations with Friends by  Sally Rooney for $2.99 Other People’s Houses by  Abbi Waxman for $1.99 Feel Free by Zadie Smith for $1.99 The Face  by  Dean Koontz for $2.99 Cari Mora by Thomas Harris for $4.99 Chronicle of a Death Foretold by  Gabriel García Márquez for $2.99 Breakfast of Champions by Kurt Vonnegut for $2.99 The Epic Crush of Genie Lo by F.C. Lee for $1.99 Finding Gideon by Eric Jerome Dickey for $1.99 The Last Time I Lied by  Riley Sager for $1.99 Burn Baby Burn by Meg Medina for $1.99 That Kind of Guy by Talia Hibbert for $3.99 The Awakened Kingdom by N.K. Jemisin for $2.99 Odd and the Frost Giants by Neil Gaiman for $3.99 The Immortalists by Chloe Benjamin for $1.99 Labyrinth Lost by Zoraida Cordova for $4.09 The Incendiaries by R.O. Kwon for $4.99 Once Ghosted, Twice Shy by Alyssa Cole for $1.99 Everythings Trash, But Its Okay  by Phoebe Robinson for $4.99 Tiny Pretty Things  by Sona Charaipotra and Dhonielle Clayton for $4.99 Nefertiti by Michelle Moran for $3.99 Instant Pot Obsession: The Ultimate Electric Pressure Cooker Cookbook for Cooking Everything Fast by Janet A. Zimmerman for $2.99 Ash Princess by Laura Sebastian for $1.99 Year of Yes by Shonda Rhimes for $2.99 A Quiet Life in the Country by T E Kinsey for $1.99 The Duchess War by Courtney Milan for $4.99 The House of the Spirits: A Novel by Isabel Allende for $1.99 Mangos and Mistletoe: A Foodie Holiday Novella by Adriana Herrera for $2.99 Guapa by Saleem Haddad for $1.99 The Unlikely Escape of Uriah Heep by H. G. Parry for $4.99 Empire of Sand by Tasha Suri for $4.99 Fatality in F (A Gethsemane Brown Mystery Book 4) by Alexia Gordon for $4.99 Reckless by Selena Montgomery for $3.99 Cant Escape Love by Alyssa Cole for $1.99 Brown Girl in the Ring by Nalo Hopkinson for $5.99 Ark by Veronica Roth for $1.99 Ten Women by Marcela Serrano for $3.99 The Price of Salt by Patricia Highsmith for $0.99 Ormeshadow by Priya Sharma for $3.99 Sisters of the Vast Black by Lina Rather for $3.99 Prophecy  by Ellen Oh for $2.99 Along for the Ride  by Mimi Grace for $2.99 Sign up for our Book Deals newsletter and get up to 80% off books you actually want to read.

Les Demoiselles D Avignon Vs The Starry Night - 970 Words

Les Demoiselles d’Avignon VS The Starry Night Case Study 1: The Starry Night by Vincent Van Gogh is one of his most known artworks, it portrays his uniqueness from other artists during his time, and it shows the viewer into some of his deepest emotions. Van Gogh had suffered personal turmoil that reached a high in December of 1888, where he then had a brief stay at an Arles hospital (Sayre 53). Within a few months van Gogh had been committed to a mental hospital, which is where he painted The Starry Night (Sayre 53). The website Artble analyzes that it seems as though van Gogh is creating a contrast between life and death with the bright sky and the dark, quiet town. The Starry Night features a cypress tree, a tree known to mark graves, which gives the viewer a sense of death. The church in the painting can be a representation of both life and death. Life can be observed from the church because it brings its followers together and can provide them with a sense of peace and happiness. Death can be observed because the church is a place where the heavens are worshiped and the dead are buried to ascend into heaven. â€Å"Soth has interpreted the Starry Night as â€Å"a religious picture, a sublimation of impulses that, since Van Gogh’s loss of faith†¦ could not find their outlet in conventional imagery.† He concluded: â€Å"Unable to paint The Agony in the Garden, Van Gogh projected its emotional content onto nature and created a sublimated image of his deepest feelings. At its most profound

The Rise and Fall of the Borgia Family

The Borgias are the most infamous family of Renaissance Italy, and their history normally hinges around four key individuals: Pope Calixtus III, his nephew Pope Alexander IV, his son Cesare, and his daughter Lucrezia. Thanks to the actions of the middle pair, the family name is associated with greed, power, lust, and murder. The Rise of the Borgias The most famous branch of the Borgia family originated with Alfonso de Borgia (1378–1458, and or Alfons de Borja in Spanish), the son of a middling status family, in Valencia, Spain. Alfons went to university and studied canon and civil law, where he demonstrated talent and after graduation began to rise through the local church. After representing his diocese in national matters, Alfons was appointed secretary to King Alfonso V of Aragon (1396–1458) and became deeply involved in politics, sometimes acting as envoy for the monarch. Soon Alfons became Vice-Chancellor, a trusted and relied upon aide, and then regent when the king went to conquer Naples. While demonstrating skills as an administrator, he also promoted his family, even interfering with a murder trial to secure his kin’s safety. When the king returned, Alfons led negotiations over a rival pope who was living in Aragon. He secured a delicate success which impressed Rome and became both a priest and a bishop. A few years later Alfons went to Naples—now ruled by Alfonso V of Aragon—and reorganized the government. In 1439 Alfons represented Aragon at a council to try and unite the eastern and western churches. It failed, but he impressed. When the king finally negotiated papal approval for his hold of Naples (in return for defending Rome against central Italian rivals), Alfons did the work  and was appointed a cardinal in 1444 as a reward. He thus moved to Rome in 1445, aged 67, and changed the spelling of his name to Borgia. Oddly for the age, Alfons was not a pluralist, keeping only one church appointment, and was also honest and sober. The next generation of Borgia would be very different, and Alfons’s nephews now arrived in Rome. The youngest, Rodrigo, was destined for the church and studied canon law in Italy, where he established a reputation as a ladies man. An elder nephew, Pedro Luis, was destined for military command. Calixtus III: The First Borgia Pope Hulton Archive / Getty Images On April 8th, 1455, shortly after being made a cardinal, Alfons was elected Pope, largely because he belonged to no major factions and seemed destined for a short reign due to age. He took the name Calixtus III. As a Spaniard, Calixtus had many ready-made enemies in Rome, and he began his rule carefully, keen to avoid Rome’s factions, even though his first ceremony was interrupted by a riot. However, Calixtus also broke with his former king, Alfonso V, after Calixtus ignored Alfonsos request for a crusade. While Calixtus punished Alonso by refusing to promote his sons, he was busy promoting his own family. Nepotism was not unusual in the papacy, indeed, it allowed the Popes to create a base of supporters. Calixtus made his nephew Rodrigo (1431–1503) and his slightly older brother Pedro (1432–1458) cardinals in their mid-20s, acts which scandalized Rome because of their youth and ensuing debauchery. Rodrigo, sent to a difficult region as a papal legate, was skilled and successful. Pedro was given an army command, and the promotions and wealth flowed in: Rodrigo became second in command of the church, and Pedro a Duke and Prefect, while other family members were given a range of positions. When King Alfonso died, Pedro was sent to seize Naples which had defaulted back to Rome. Critics believed Calixtus intended to give Naples to Pedro. However, matters came to a head between Pedro and his rivals over this, and he had to flee enemies, although he died shortly after of malari a. In aiding him, Rodrigo demonstrated a physical bravery  and was with Calixtus when he too died in 1458. Rodrigo: Journey to the Papacy Painting of Portrait of Rodrigo Borgia (1431-1503) Pope Alexander VI. German School / Getty Images In the conclave following Calixtus’s death, Rodrigo was the most junior cardinal, but he played a key role in electing the new Pope—Pius II—a role that required courage and gambling his career. The move worked, and for a young foreign outsider who had lost his patron, Rodrigo found himself a key ally of the new pope and confirmed Vice-Chancellor. To be fair, Rodrigo was a man of great ability and was perfectly capable in this role, but he also loved women, wealth, and glory. He thus abandoned the example of his uncle Calixtus and set about acquiring benefices and land to secure his position: castles, bishoprics, and money. Rodrigo also earned official reprimands from the Pope for his licentiousness. Rodrigo’s response was to cover his tracks more. However, he had many children, including a son called Cesare in 1475 and a daughter called Lucrezia in 1480. In 1464, Pope Pius II died, and when the conclave to select the next pope began Rodrigo was powerful enough to influence the election of Pope Paul I (served 1464–1471). In 1469, Rodrigo was sent as a papal legate to Spain with permission to approve or deny the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, and thus the union of the Spanish regions of Aragon and Castile. In approving the match, and working to get Spain to accept them, Rodrigo earned the support of King Ferdinand. On returning to Rome, Rodrigo kept his head down as the new pope Sixtus IV (served 1471–1484) became the center of plotting and intrigue in Italy. Rodrigos children were given routes to success: his eldest son became a Duke, while daughters were married to secure alliances. A papal conclave in 1484 installed Innocent VIII rather than making Rodrigo pope, but the Borgia leader had his eye on the throne, and worked hard to secure allies for what he considered his last chance, and was aided by the current pope causing violence and chaos. In 1492, with the death of Innocent VIII, Rodrigo put all his work together with a huge amount of bribes and was finally elected Pope Alexander VI. It has been said, not without validity, that he bought the papacy. Alexander VI: The Second Borgia Pope Hulton Archive / Getty Images Alexander had widespread public support  and was capable, diplomatic, and skilled, as well as rich, hedonistic, and concerned with ostentatious displays. While Alexander at first tried to keep his role separate from family, his children soon benefited from his election, and received huge wealth; Cesare became a cardinal in 1493.  Relatives arrived in Rome and were rewarded, and the Borgias were soon endemic in Italy. While many other Popes had been nepotists, Alexander went farther, promoting his own children and had a range of mistresses, something that further fueled a growing and negative reputation. At this point, some of the Borgia children also began to cause problems, as they annoyed their new families, and at one point Alexander appears to have threatened to excommunicate a mistress for returning to her husband. Alexander soon had to navigate a way through the warring states and families which surrounded him, and, at first, he tried negotiation, including the marriage of a twelve-year-old Lucrezia to Giovanni Sforza. He had some success with diplomacy, but it was short-lived. Meanwhile, Lucrezia’s husband proved a poor soldier, and he fled in opposition to the pope, who then had him divorced. Accounts claim Lucrezias husband believed rumors of incest between Alexander and Lucrezia that persist to this day. France then entered the arena, competing for Italian land, and in 1494 King Charles VIII invaded Italy. His advance was barely stopped, and as Charles entered Rome, Alexander retired to a palace. He could have  fled  but stayed to use his ability against the neurotic Charles. He negotiated both his own survival and a compromise which ensured an independent papacy, but which left Cesare as both a papal legate and a hostage†¦ until he escaped. France took Naples, but the rest of Italy came together in a Holy League in which Alexander played a key role. However, when Charles retreated back through Rome, Alexander thought it best to leave this second time. Juan Borgia Alexander now turned on a  Roman family  who stayed loyal to France: the Orsini. The command was given to Alexander’s son Duke Juan, who was recalled from Spain, where he had earned a reputation for womanizing. Meanwhile, Rome echoed to the rumors of the excesses of the Borgia children. Alexander meant to give Juan first the vital Orsini land, and then strategic papal lands, but Juan was assassinated and his corpse thrown into the Tiber. He was 20. No one knows who did it. The Rise of Cesare Borgia Mondadori / Getty Images Juan had been Alexander’s  favorite  and his commander: that  honor  (and the rewards) were now diverted to Cesare, who wished to resign his cardinal’s hat and marry. Cesare represented the future to Alexander, partly because the other male  Borgia  children were dying or weak. Cesare secularized himself fully in 1498. He was immediately given replacement wealth as the Duke of Valence through an alliance Alexander brokered with the new French King Louis XIII, in return for papal acts and aiding him in gaining Milan. Cesare also married into Louis’ family and was given an army. His wife became pregnant before he left for Italy, but neither she nor the child ever saw Cesare again. Louis was successful and Cesare, who was only 23 but with an iron will and strong drive, began a remarkable military career. The Wars of Cesare Borgia Alexander looked at the condition of the Papal States, left in disarray after the first French invasion, and decided military action was needed. He thus ordered Cesare, who was in Milan with his army, to pacify large areas of central Italy for the Borgias. Cesare had early success, although when his large French contingent returned to France, he needed a new army and returned to Rome. Cesare seemed to have control over his father now, and people after papal appointments and acts found it more profitable to seek out the son instead of Alexander. Cesare also became Captain-General of the churches armies  and a dominant figure in central Italy. Lucrezia’s husband was also killed, possibly on the orders of an angry Cesare, who also was rumored to be acting against those who badmouthed him in Rome by assassinations. Murder was common in Rome, and many of the unsolved deaths were attributed to the Borgias, and usually Cesare. With a substantial war chest from Alexander, Cesare conquered., and at one point marched to remove Naples from the control of the dynasty who had given the Borgias their start. When Alexander went south to oversee the division of land, Lucrezia was left behind in Rome as regent. The Borgia family gained great amounts of land in the  Papal States, which were now concentrated in the hands of one family more than ever before, and Lucrezia was packed off to marry Alfonso d’Este to secure a flank of Cesare’s conquests. The Fall of the Borgias As the alliance with France now seemed to be holding Cesare back, plans were made, deals struck, wealth acquired and enemies murdered to take a change of direction, but in mid-1503 Alexander died of malaria. Cesare found his benefactor gone, his realm not yet consolidated, large foreign armies in the north and south, and himself also deeply ill. Furthermore, with Cesare weak, his enemies rushed back from exile to threaten his lands, and when Cesare failed to coerce the papal conclave, he retreated from Rome. He persuaded the new pope Pius III (served September-October 1503) to re-admit him safely, but that pontiff died after  twenty-six  days and Cesare had to flee. He next supported a great Borgia rival, Cardinal  della  Rovere, as Pope Julius III, but with his lands conquered and his diplomacy rebuffed an annoyed Julius arrested Cesare. Borgias were now thrown out of their positions, or forced into keeping quiet. Developments allowed Cesare to be released, and he went to Naples, but he was arrested by Ferdinand of Aragon and locked up again. Cesare did escape after two years  but was killed in a skirmish in 1507. He was just 31. Lucrezia the Patron and the End of the Borgias Print Collector / Getty Images Lucrezia also survived  malaria and the loss of her father and brother. Her personality reconciled her to her husband, his  family, and her state, and she took up court positions, acting as regent. She  organized  the state, saw it through war, and created a court of great culture through her patronage. She was popular with her  subjects  and died in 1519. No Borgias ever rose to become as powerful as Alexander, but there were plenty of minor figures who held religious and political positions, and Francis Borgia (d. 1572) was made a saint. By Francis’ time the family was declining in importance, and by the end of the eighteenth century it had died out. The Borgia Legend Alexander and the Borgias have become infamous for corruption,  cruelty,  and murder. Yet what Alexander did as pope was rarely original, he just took things to a new extreme. Cesare was perhaps the supreme intersection of secular power wielded to spiritual power in Europe’s history, and the Borgias were renaissance  princes  no worse than many of their contemporaries. Indeed, Cesare was given the dubious distinction of Machiavelli, who knew Cesare, saying the Borgia general was a grand example of how to tackle power. Sources and Further Reading Fusero, Clemente. The Borgias. Trans. Green, Peter. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1972.  Mallett, Michael. The Borgias: The Rise and Fall of a Renaissance Family. New York: Barnes Noble, 1969.  Meyer, G. J. The Borgias: The Hidden History. New York: Random House, 2013.

Orem Free Essays

Strengths Orem’s theory provide a comprehensive base to nursing practice. It is functional in the different fields of nursing. May it be in clinical setting, education, research or administration. We will write a custom essay sample on Orem or any similar topic only for you Order Now Moreover, this theory is as applicable for nursing by the beginning practitioner as much as the advanced clinician(George JB. , 1995). Another major strength of Orem’s theory is it’s advocacy for the use of the Nursing Process (Balabagno, et. al, 2006). Orem specifically identified the steps of this process. She also mentioned that the nursing process involves intellectual and practical phases. Limitations The ambiguity of applying theory to nursing practice may lie in the fact that one theory does not always specifically support all aspects of nursing care. Orem’s self care deficit theory may not encompass all aspects of care and needs of a specific client. For instance, some dilemma with Orem’s theory include having an unclear definition of family, the nurse-society relationship and public education areas are weak. These issues are essential in the management and treatment plan in caring for patients. Although the family, community and environment are considered in self care action, the focus is primarily on the individual (Balabagno, et. al, 2006). Another limitation is the definition of health as being dynamic and ever changing with states ranging from health or non health, wellness or illness (Fitzpatrick JJ, 2005). This definition of health directly contradicts the experience of some patients with varying needs and levels of care requirements. One of the most obvious limitations of Orem’s theory is that throughout her work, it can be said that a limited recognition of an individual’s emotional needs is present within the theory (George JB. , 1995). It focuses more on physical care and gives lesser emphasis to psychological care. Other theories address this limitation quite adequately such as Jean Watson’s Theory of Caring. How to cite Orem, Papers

Worst Sinner in the Scarlet Letter free essay sample

Roger had learned all his tricks and medicines from the Indians and therefore was able to prolong Dimmesdale’s torture through using herbs. Chillingworth says, â€Å"Don’t think that I will lay a finger on him and interfere with Heaven’s work of punishment let him live. † Chillingworth never physically laid a hand on Dimmesdale, but he kept him healthy using the herbs to make sure that Dimmesdale would endure the torture of his affair, mentally and physically. Chillingworth knew exactly what he was doing to Dimmesdale. He said it would have been better had he died right away than endure seven years of vengeance. Here Roger is admitting that he has spent the last seven years using his herbs to keep Dimmesdale alive because death would be too easy. Roger Chillingworth was described as giving â€Å"black medicine† to Dimmesdale. Him using this was a way to punish Dimmesdale for wronging him. We will write a custom essay sample on Worst Sinner in the Scarlet Letter or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The term â€Å"black medicine† is in correlation with the devil, as if Chillingworth is acting as Satan to get back at Dimmesdale. While talking with Dimmesdale he says, â€Å"Wherefore not; since all the powers of nature call so earnestly for the confession of sin, that these black weeds have sprung up out of a buried heart, to make manifest an unspoken crime? † Here, Chillingworth is expressing his use of the â€Å"black medicine†. What he is using are weeds he found at the cemetery, and he is explaining them as natures punishment for people who have committed hidden crimes. Chillingworth is hinting that the medicine he is giving Dimmesdale is nature’s way of making sure Dimmesdale is getting the punishment he deserves. Roger’s sin here is that he is one with the devil and carrying out actions only the devil would use through the â€Å"black medicine†. Once he stopped partaking the herbs given by Chillingworth, unfortunately, Dimmesdale died. This is proof Chillingworth used the herbs to stall Dimmesdale’s untimely death. At their home, Chillingworth offered Dimmesdale medicine. â€Å"But methinks, dear Sir, you look pale; as if the travel through the wilderness had been too sore for you. Will not my aid be requisite to put you in heart and strength to preach your Election Sermon? Dimmesdale passed on the medicine, knowing Chillingworth’s intentions. Chillingworth was described as being a â€Å"leech† and feed off of Dimmesdale’s pain, but when he collapsed and died on the scaffold the next day, he had nothing left to live for and died soon after. It is not a coincidence that Dimmesdale died so soon after being clean of herbs. Death was not a part of Chilli ngworth’s plan, and Dimmesdale was able to escape Chillingworth’s torture by stopping his medications and dying. Roger Chillingworth is the worst sinner in The Scarlet Letter. He prolonged Dimmesdale’s torture through herbs and was one with the devil. Roger Chillingworth never laid a hand on Dimmesdale throughout the book but he mentally got to him over the seven years. The herbs kept Dimmesdale alive just so Roger could get his revenge through the torture. When Dimmesdale passed away after stopping the herbs Roger Chillingworth had nothing left to live for, and died shortly after, because as the â€Å"leech†, he no longer had anything to feed off of. Roger Chillingworth was not always the man that he seemed, he had something deeper in him and was the worst sinner.